Participatory program planning: including program participants and evaluators
Introduction
For almost 20 years evaluators have been writing about the benefits and problems of including program participants and other key stakeholders in the design and administration of program evaluations (see for example Ayers, 1987, Folkman and Rai, 1997, Greene, 1987, Mathie and Greene, 1997, O'Sullivan and O'Sullivan, 1998, Weiss, 1983) and policy making (Doherty and Rispel, 1995, Rixecker, 1994). Although challenging, researchers have noted the importance of such inclusion not only in improving evaluations and the utilization of evaluations, but also in empowering participants (Gergen and Gergen, 1991, Harris, 1995, Morgan, 1983, Papineau and Kiely, 1996, Reason, 1988).
One of the major difficulties in conducting participatory evaluations is overcoming the power differences ingrained in a service model that often disempowers program participants. Dealing with the conflicts that often occur when working with heterogenous groups often requires much time and attention by evaluators (Greene, 2000, Mathie and Greene, 1997). Further, trying to determine the goals and theory underlying a program and balancing the multiple viewpoints of what is considered program ‘success’ is often a challenge. This combined with inadequate record keeping and difficulty gaining access to data can present many obstacles for evaluators.
Many of these problems could be eliminated if addressed when programs are being planned in a climate where stakeholders and participants see each other as partners in ensuring program success. Yet compared to evaluation and policy research, little has been written about how to plan programs as well as how participants can be part of the process.
This paper attempts to overcome these shortcomings with a generalizable program planning model that includes components which: (1) emphasize program design areas that program evaluators often note as weak when conducting evaluations (2) include explicit opportunities to incorporate potential program participants and other program stakeholders in the planning process and (3) are cognizant of the larger context within which programs are planned. Although the specifics of component implementation may depend on the program being implemented and the composition of the planning group, this planning model includes a description of each component and how participants can be included in that component. The challenges and potential pitfalls inherent in each component are also discussed.
Section snippets
Program planning
Since the end of World War II, interventions in the form of programs have been the approach used to address social problems and human needs in the United States. The typical procedure has been to identify the problem and design a program intended to solve it using private and public support (Hodgson, 1978). Yet the problems have not disappeared and some program evaluators have bemoaned that “programs don't work” (Martinson, 1974). Program design has generally been left up to policy makers or,
Participatory program planning
Similar to participatory evaluations that emphasize the active inclusion of program clients, participatory program planning puts participants at the center of the planning process. Participatory work can help to empower participants1 as well as teach participants (and other members of the planning team) valuable decision-making, communication, research,
Program planning components
There are many problems with program design that are often discovered in the course of a program evaluation. Program evaluators often note that an unclear definition of a program's purpose, goals, theory, and inadequate baseline measures often make it difficult to adequately design and implement effective program evaluations (Posavac & Carey, 1997). Programs are often designed in a vacuum, forgetting the larger community and policy context that, if taken into consideration, could provide
Lessons learning
Because of the newness of this program planning model, there is still much to be learned and explored about program planning in a participatory manner. The planning model combines two major areas that would each benefit from further exploration: program planning and participatory planning. Therefore, more research and case studies of participatory program planning are necessary.
The planning model presented in this paper has been designed to be general enough to be used in the planning of many
Conclusions
The program planning model presented in this paper is a comprehensive planning process with many opportunities to involve participants in program design. Including future program participants along with other stakeholders in the planning process can help in the development of a program that participants will use, that stakeholders and participants feel invested in, and that can successfully be evaluated after the program is implemented.
Combining the knowledge of program administrators and
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Subhash Sonnad, Huey Chen, Marilyn Fernandez, Sandra Bever, Deborah Lustig, and incredibly helpful and insightful anonymous reviewers for their contributions to this paper's development.
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